A Japanese tattoo artist who argued his job was a form of art and not run a medical practice has been ordered to pay a fine.
Under Japanese law, all tattoo artists require a formal medical qualification, which artist Taiki Masuda did not have.
Police raided his studio in 2015 but he refused to pay the ensuing fine and asked for a trial.
The case is the first of its kind and has attracted international attention to tattoo culture in Japan, where body art is associated with organised crime.
An Osaka District Court has now ruled that Mr Masuda broke the law when he tattooed three people between 2014 and 2015.
“With tattoo treatment, medical knowledge and skills are indispensable in order to sufficiently understand the dangers and carry out sufficient judgments and measures,” the ruling said.
“Therefore, unless carried out by a doctor, there is a danger to health and no guarantee of sanitation, making this a medical activity.”
Mr Masuda had argued that his tattooing was a form of artistic expression, and that preventing him for operating was a violation of the constitution.
He said tattooists needed knowledge of safety and hygiene, but not to the same extent as licenced medical practitioners.
But at court on Wednesday Mr Masuda was ordered to pay a 150,000 yen (£994) fine, though this was half the original penalty.
Mr Masuda told reporters after the ruling that he planned to appeal the decision.
“I do not accept this ruling. I’m practising art and tattooing is a part of traditional Japanese culture,” he said.
In 2001 the Japanese government ruled that tattooing, laser hair removal and chemical peel treatments can only be carried out by licenced doctors.
